Ethereum

Stellar Classic Assets — How They Work, and How They Map to ERC-20 and ERC-7943

How Stellar Classic assets work (trustlines, issuer flags, clawback), how they map to ERC-20 and ERC-7943, and when to move to SEP-8 or a SEP-41 token.

2026, Oct 15 —

Risk of a Zama Confidential Morpho Vault - Losses, Exits, Contagion and What Can Be Watched

Analysing a Morpho vault entered through Zama: who bears a loss, the two exits and their delay, contagion through markets and decryption, what stays public.

2026, Oct 11 —

Risk of Ethena's USDe and sUSDe - Backing Venues, Depeg Priors and a Leveraged PT Position

Measuring the risk of Ethena's USDe and sUSDe: backing by exchange, reserve fund, depeg priors, a venue failure and negative funding on a leveraged PT loop.

2026, Oct 11 —

How Morpho Vault V2 Works - Adapters, Caps, Timelocks and In-Kind Redemption

Morpho Vault V2 from its source code: adapters and id-based caps, curator timelocks, maxRate and fee accounting, gates, and in-kind exits with forceDeallocate.

2026, Oct 10 —

Morpho Vault V2 Adapters - How a Vault Allocates, and Why It Wraps a Vault V1

What a Morpho Vault V2 adapter is, the rules it must follow, the three adapters in the code, and how MorphoVaultV1Adapter lets a V2 vault hold a V1 vault.

2026, Oct 10 —

How Morpho Vault V1 (MetaMorpho) Works, and What Vault V2 Changes

MetaMorpho, Morpho's first vault, read from its v1.0 and v1.1 source: queues, supply caps, one timelock, the guardian, lostAssets, and what Vault V2 changes.

2026, Oct 10 —

How Morpho Blue Works - Isolated Lending Markets, Shares, Liquidations and Bad Debt

Morpho Blue from its source code: five-parameter markets, share accounting, interest, the LLTV-based liquidation bonus, bad debt, callbacks and flash loans.

2026, Oct 10 —

A Test That Could Never Pass — An Aztec Failure, the Explanation That Fitted, and the One That Was True

An Aztec test failed on a tagging-secret assertion. The obvious explanation fitted every symptom and was wrong: the chain had never advanced at all.

2026, Sep 23 —

Three Launchpad Bugs from the Bio Protocol EVM Audits - Units, Donations and Partial Claims

Three Bio EVM launchpad audit bugs, with code: a vesting duration passed as a timestamp, a one-wei donation that bricks a launch, a transfer that burns claims.

2026, Sep 22 —

Bio Protocol Overview - DeSci Launchpad, BIO Token Economy and Open-Source DAO Contracts

How Bio Protocol funds biotech on-chain: USDC Ignition Sales, veBIO and BioXP allocation, a 1 % swap tax, and its audited token, vesting and airdrop contracts.

2026, Sep 18 —

Gates on Aztec — What a Private Function Costs, Where the Cost Hides, and Seven Measured Ways to Lower It

On Aztec a private function's gate count is proving time on the user's device: kernel overhead, budgets, deliveries, reads, and seven measured optimisations.

2026, Sep 18 —

Building a Wallet for Aztec — What a MetaMask for a Private Chain Has to Contain

An Aztec wallet is a key store, a private-state database, a prover and a dApp gateway in one: components, build order, traps, and the wallets that exist today.

2026, Sep 17 —

Randomness on Aztec — One Oracle, Four Uses, and Why the Circuit Never Checks It

Every random value in an Aztec contract comes from one unconstrained oracle backed by the client's CSPRNG: what it blinds, its limits, and why that is safe.

2026, Sep 17 —

Ephemeral Keys on Aztec — Encrypting to an Address, the Curve Behind It, and What a Quantum Computer Would Break

Every private note on Aztec is encrypted with a one-shot ECDH key on Grumpkin: how it is made, what the ciphertext holds, and why it is not post-quantum.

2026, Sep 17 —

Packing Small Values into One Field on Aztec — The Packable Trait, Its Cost and Its Traps

A derived Packable spends one Field per member. Packing two bools into one saves a slot or a note-hash input, can cost gates, and moves every slot after it.

2026, Sep 16 —

Code Reuse in Aztec Contracts — Modules, Traits and Library Crates Instead of Inheritance

Aztec contracts cannot inherit. What a contract module must own, what a Noir library can hold, and how a trait replaces virtual methods, on a two-variant token.

2026, Sep 15 —

Reading Public State from a Private Function on Aztec — Why a Pause Flag Comes with a Delay

A private Aztec function cannot read a public flag. DelayedPublicMutable allows it, at the price of a delay that also caps how long the transaction stays valid.

2026, Sep 14 —

Aztec Contract Standards — AIP-20, AIP-721, ARC-1155, ARC-403, AIP-4626 and the Escrow Standard

Aztec's ERC equivalents share one design: a private note balance and a public balance per account, transfers named by domain, authwits instead of approve.

2026, Sep 11 —

AIP-20, the Aztec Token Standard, Compared with ERC-20 and ERC-7984

AIP-20 gives each account a private note balance and a public one, swaps approve for authwits and reverts on shortfall. ERC-7984 hides amounts, never reverts.

2026, Sep 11 —

Inside Circle's UpgradableMSCA — A Modular Smart Contract Account Under ERC-6900

How Circle's UpgradableMSCA implements an ERC-6900 modular account: validation entities, hook ordering, ERC-7201 storage, and the factory that deploys it.

2026, Sep 09 —

Inside Circle's SponsorPaymaster — How a Verifying Paymaster Is Built

A line-by-line reading of Circle's SponsorPaymaster, the ERC-4337 v0.7 verifying paymaster behind gasless Circle wallets, and the design choices behind it.

2026, Sep 09 —

Native Account Abstraction on Aztec, Compared with ERC-4337

Aztec has no EOAs and no protocol signature scheme, so account validation is proved on the user's device. What that changes against ERC-4337, and what it costs.

2026, Sep 09 —

How Aztec Works — Private Execution, Notes and Nullifiers, and a Comparison with Zama FHE, Zcash, Canton and Railgun

Aztec runs private functions on the user's device and public ones on the sequencer. Notes, nullifiers, what a transaction still leaks, and four rival designs.

2026, Sep 08 —

How Centrifuge Vaults Work — Asynchronous ERC-7540 Investment on a Hub-and-Spoke Protocol

A technical walkthrough of Centrifuge V3 vaults - the ERC-7540 request lifecycle, the pool escrow reservation model, the pricing and rounding rules, and the transfer hook.

2026, Aug 18 —

Double-Entry Bookkeeping On-Chain — How the Centrifuge Hub Keeps a Multi-Chain Pool's Books

How Centrifuge implements real double-entry accounting in Solidity - debit-normal accounts, balanced journals, cross-chain snapshots, and the NAV and share price derived from them.

2026, Aug 18 —

Two Ways to Build a Permissioned Token — Centrifuge's Transfer Hook Against ERC-3643

A comparison of two enforcement architectures for regulated tokens - Centrifuge's single swappable hook with packed eligibility data, and ERC-3643's identity registry plus compliance modules.

2026, Aug 18 —

Rundler — Inside Alchemy's ERC-4337 Bundler

How Rundler implements an ERC-4337 bundler in Rust — the Pool, Builder and RPC tasks, mempool simulation and reputation, the bundle sender state machine, gas estimation, signature aggregation and multi-entry-point support.

2026, Jul 30 —

How Alchemy Implements Smart Wallets and Account Abstraction

A walkthrough of Alchemy's ERC-4337 stack — Modular Account V2 and its semi-modular variants, validation selection through the UserOperation nonce, deferred actions, session-key permission modules, the Rundler bundler, and the hosted Wallet APIs.

2026, Jul 30 —

Medusa — Architecture and Practical Use of a Coverage-Guided Solidity Fuzzer

How Medusa fuzzes Solidity contracts. Architecture, the corpus and coverage feedback loop, assertion, property and optimization tests, and a step-by-step setup on a real project.

2026, Jul 28 —

Gnosis Conditional Tokens — Combinatorial Prediction Markets on ERC-1155

How the Gnosis Conditional Tokens contracts model prediction markets, why collection identifiers are elliptic curve points on alt_bn128, and what the 2019 audit found.

2026, Jul 28 —

SenderCreator in ERC-4337 — Deploying Accounts and Reading Counterfactual Addresses

How the ERC-4337 SenderCreator contract deploys smart accounts on behalf of the EntryPoint, how third parties read counterfactual addresses through getSenderAddress, and what changed across EntryPoint v0.6 to v0.9.

2026, Jul 23 —

ERC Standards for AI Agents - The On-Chain Agent Stack on Ethereum

A technical survey of the Ethereum ERC standards for AI agents, from ERC-8004 Trustless Agents to verification, coordination, commerce, and verifiable ML inference.

2026, Jul 06 —

ERC-8004 Trustless Agents - Identity, Reputation and Validation for On-Chain AI Agents

A technical deep dive into ERC-8004 Trustless Agents - its three registries for agent identity, reputation and validation, the pluggable trust models, and how the standard is being deployed.

2026, Jul 06 —

Solidity Modifier Patterns: Gas, Bytecode Size, and Security Trade-offs

A technical comparison of Solidity modifier patterns — inline, wrapped function, and no-modifier — analyzing gas costs, bytecode size impact, auditability, and conventions across major codebases.

2026, Feb 18 —

Nonce Management and CREATE2 in ERC-4337 Smart Wallets

Understanding the dual nonce system in ERC-4337 smart wallets, the differences between CREATE and CREATE2 for contract deployment, and the pitfalls encountered with EIP-7702 delegation.

2026, Feb 17 —

EIP-7702 Smart Wallet Security: Threat Model and Attack Surface Analysis

A practical security analysis of EIP-7702 smart wallets covering initialization front-running, access control, signature replay, dual nonce systems, and residual risks inherent to EOA code delegation.

2026, Feb 17 —

Blockchain gas price

Gas price source

2025, Nov 10 —

USD₮0 - Omnichain Fungible Token

USD₮0 is an Omnichain Fungible Token (OFT) built on LayerZero, enabling cross-chain transfers of USDT. Learn how USD₮0 works, its architecture, and the Legacy Mesh that connects existing USDT networks.

2025, Nov 07 —

Vault Curator - Steak House Finance

Initially established as core contributors to the Sky (f.k.a. MakerDAO) ecosystem, Steakhouse has gone on to become a curator and DeFi advisory firm working with some of the largest protocols, including Lido, Morpho, Ethena, ENS, Arbitrum, and more.

2025, Nov 06 —

Security of Cryptocurrency Exchanges - Overview"

Cryptocurrency exchanges play a pivotal role in the digital asset ecosystem, serving as platforms for on-ramp, trading, storing, and converting cryptocurrencies. As central nodes in a highly valuable and rapidly evolving industry, these exchanges are frequent targets for cyberattacks and financial fraud.

2025, Nov 06 —

Aztec: A Privacy-First Layer 2 for Ethereum

Aztec L2 enables private, composable smart contracts on Ethereum using zero-knowledge proofs and hybrid public/private state.

2025, Oct 29 —

RAILGUN: Privacy Infrastructure for DeFi

RAILGUN brings full privacy to DeFi using zk-SNARK cryptography, shielding senders, recipients, and tokens for untraceable blockchain transactions.

2025, Oct 28 —

Solidity ABI Encoding – Overview

This article presents the differences between abi.encode, abi.encodePacked, and abi.encodeWithSignature in Solidity. Use cases, examples, and security tips.

2025, Jul 29 —

OpenZeppelin v5 Data - Overview

This article explores data structures in OpenZeppelin Contracts v5, including EnumerableSet, DoubleEndedQueue, CircularBuffer, Checkpoints, Heap, and MerkleTree.

2025, Jul 29 —

Automated Market Makers (AMMs) - Overview

Automated Market Makers (AMMs) are an essential piece of decentralized finance (DeFi). This article covers the most commonly used formulas in AMM design, their benefits, and their limitations.

2025, Jul 29 —

Tether USDT smart contract - Overview

This article analyze the features, architecture, and implications of the Solidity version deployed on Ethereum mainet, especially from a security, centralization, and functional standpoint.

2025, Jul 06 —

EIP-7702: Set Code for EOAs - Overview

This EIP adds a new EIP-2718 transaction type that allows Externally Owned Accounts (EOAs) to set the code in their account.

2025, May 09 —

Cross-chain tokens Standard (ERC-7281, xERC20) - Overview

This article presents the different standards to represent cross-chain token on Ethereum and EVM blockchain, notably ERC-7281(xERC20) & ERC-7802

2025, May 07 —

Ethereum Upgrade Pectra - Overview

This article presents the list of EIP included in Ethereum Pectra Upgrade (2025)

2025, May 02 —

ERC-4337: Account Abstraction Using Alt Mempool

This article presents a global overview of ERC-4337 which offers Account Abstraction on Ethereum using Alt Mempool and an entrypoint.

2025, May 02 —

Multicall in Solidity: CALL vs DELEGATECALL Explained

Discover how Multicall enables batch execution of smart contract calls, when to use CALL vs DELEGATECALL, and how contract interactions differ from EOAs.

2025, Apr 03 —

ERC-721 (NFT) Overview: Implementation, Security, and Best Practices

This article presents a global overview of ERC-721 standard (NFT), covering its core functions, metadata, and security best practices and to build it with OpenZeppelin.

2025, Mar 03 —

Ethereum NFT Standards: ERC-721, ERC-1155, ERC-6551, and More

Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) enable unique, verifiable ownership of digital and real-world items on the blockchain. While ERC-721 remains the main standard to represent NFTs on Ethereum and EVM blockchains, several other standards (ERC-1155, ERC-2981, ERC-4907,...) have emerged to meet various use cases and improve functionality.

2025, Jan 14 —

Virtual Protocol, create co-ownership AI agents

Virtuals Protocol is a co-ownership layer for AI agents in gaming and entertainment. These agents can operate across a wide range of applications and games, significantly expanding their revenue surface area. AI agents can be to be tokenized and co-owned via blockchain.

2024, Dec 05 —

Decentralizing Social Platform - Exploring Farcaster’s Architecture

Farcaster is a sufficiently decentralized social network built on Ethereum. It is a public social network similar to Twitter and Reddit. Users can create profiles, share posts known as "casts," and follow others. Users have full ownership of their accounts and connections, allowing them the freedom to transition between different apps.

2024, Dec 05 —